<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.3 20210610//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1-3.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="ru"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">socofpower</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="ru">Социология власти</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Sociology of Power</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">2074-0492</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2413-144X</issn><publisher><publisher-name>The Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id custom-type="edn" pub-id-type="custom">IVSRTD</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">socofpower-365</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>СТАТЬИ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>ARTICLES</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Сдерживание или нормализация: взаимосвязь между уровнем убийств и строгостью судебных приговоров в регионах России</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Deterrence or Normalization: The Relationship Between Murder Rates and Sentencing Severity in Russia’s Regions</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0006-6520-8867</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Амшаринская</surname><given-names>С. Ю.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Amsharinskaya</surname><given-names>S. Y.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Станислава Юрьевна Амшаринская, стажер-исследователь</p><p>Центр комплексных исследований социальной политики</p><p>Москва</p><p>Научные интересы: количественные методы в социальных науках, эмпирические исследования права, социальная политика</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Stanislava Y. Amsharinskaya, research assistant</p><p>Center for Comprehensive Social Policy Research</p><p>Moscow</p><p>Research interests: quantitative methods in social sciences, empirical studies of law, social policy</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">samsharinskaya@hse.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff-1"><aff xml:lang="ru">Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики»<country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en">National Research University Higher School of Economics<country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2025</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>20</day><month>12</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><volume>37</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>51</fpage><lpage>76</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Амшаринская С.Ю., 2025</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Амшаринская С.Ю.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Amsharinskaya S.Y.</copyright-holder><license license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://socofpower.ranepa.ru/jour/article/view/365">https://socofpower.ranepa.ru/jour/article/view/365</self-uri><abstract><p>В данной статье исследуется взаимосвязь между уровнем убийств и строгостью судебных приговоров в регионах России. Теория сдержек предполагает, что при высоком уровне преступности судьи будут стремиться назначать более строгие наказания, чтобы повысить ожидаемые издержки совершения преступлений и, соответственно, сократить их количество. Однако социальные и психологические факторы могут приводить к эффекту нормализации и, как следствие, к отсутствию изменений в средних сроках приговоров. Для того чтобы определить, какой из механизмов имеет место в российском контексте, был использован двухэтапный регрессионный анализ. На первом этапе был проведен многоуровневый регрессионный анализ на данных приговоров по части 1 статьи 105 Уголовного кодекса Российской Федерации (убийство) за период с 2013 по 2019 год (N = 20 265). Результаты показали, что судьи склонны назначать более строгие наказания в регионах с высоким уровнем убийств, что соответствует гипотезе о том, что суды действуют согласно логике сдерживания. Однако внутрирегиональные сравнения показали, что в рамках региона рост числа убийств сопровождается ужесточением наказаний лишь для преступлений, являющихся рецидивами. На втором этапе, для оценки эффективности подобной стратегии, был проведен второй регрессионный анализ уже с агрегацией на уровне регионов (N = 448). Он показал, что ни строгость наказания, ни уровень раскрываемости преступлений не оказывают статистически значимого влияния на последующий уровень убийств в регионе. Эти результаты ставят под сомнение эффективность использования строгости наказания в качестве инструмента снижения насильственной преступности.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="en"><p>   This article examines the relationship between homicide rates and the severity of judicial sentences across Russian regions. Deterrence theory posits that in areas with high crime rates, judges are likely to impose harsher punishments to increase the expected costs of criminal activity and thereby reduce its prevalence. However, social and psychological factors may induce a normalization effect, resulting in no significant change in average sentencing lengths. To ascertain which mechanism predominates in the Russian context, a two-stage regression analysis was employed. The first stage involved a multilevel regression analysis of sentencing data under Part 1 of Article 105 of the Russian Criminal Code (homicide) for the period from 2013 to 2019 (N = 20,265). The findings indicate that judges tend to assign stricter penalties in regions with higher homicide rates, consistent with the deterrence hypothesis. However, intraregional comparisons revealed that within a given region, increases in homicide rates were associated with harsher sentences only for repeat offenders. The second stage aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of this sentencing strategy through a regression analysis aggregated at the regional level (N = 448). The results demonstrated that neither the severity of punishment nor the crime clearance rate had a statistically significant impact on subsequent homicide levels in the regions. These findings call into question the efficacy of using sentence severity as a tool to reduce violent crime.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>теория сдержек</kwd><kwd>уровень преступности</kwd><kwd>строгость наказания</kwd><kwd>факторы принятия правоприменительных решений</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>deterrence theory</kwd><kwd>crime rate</kwd><kwd>certainty</kwd><kwd>severity</kwd><kwd>sentencing</kwd><kwd>factors of law enforcement decision-making</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group xml:lang="ru"><funding-statement>Исследование выполнено в рамках Программы фундаментальных исследований НИУ ВШЭ</funding-statement></funding-group><funding-group xml:lang="en"><funding-statement>The study was carried out as part of the HSE Research Programme</funding-statement></funding-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Андриенко Ю. В. (2001) В поисках объяснения роста преступности в России в переходный период: криминометрический подход. Higher School of Economics Economic Journal, 5, рр. 194‒220. EDN: SLUWMK</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Andrienko Y. V. (2001) In Search of an Explanation for the Rise in Crime in Russia During the Transition Period: A Criminometric Approach. Higher School of Economics Economic Journal, 5(2), рр. 194‒220. EDN: SLUWMK — in Russ.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit2"><label>2</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Волченко О. В., Широканова А. А. (2016) Применение многоуровневого регрессионного моделирования к межстрановым данным (на примере генерализованного доверия). Социология: методология, методы, математическое моделирование (Социология: 4М), 43, с. 7–62. EDN: ZDEEIP</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Volchenko O. V., Shirokanova A. A. (2016) Application of Multilevel Regression Modeling to Cross-National Data (Using the Example of Generalized Trust). Sociology: Methodology, Methods, Mathematical Modeling (Sociology: 4M), 43, рр. 7–62. EDN: ZDEEIP— in Russ.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit3"><label>3</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Abramovaite J., Bandyopadhyay S., Bhattacharya S., Cowen N. (2023) Classical deterrence theory revisited: An empirical analysis of Police Force Areas in England and Wales. European Journal of Criminology, 20(5), рр. 1663–1680. doi: 10.1177/14773708211072415</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Abramovaite J., Bandyopadhyay S., Bhattacharya S., Cowen N. (2023) Classical deterrence theory revisited: An empirical analysis of Police Force Areas in England and Wales. European Journal of Criminology, 20(5), рр. 1663–1680. doi: 10.1177/14773708211072415</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit4"><label>4</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Andrienko Y., Shelley L. (2005) Crime, Violence, and Political Conflict in Russia (Understanding civil war, рр. 87–118). World Bank; JSTOR. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep02484.8</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Andrienko Y., Shelley L. (2005) Crime, Violence, and Political Conflict in Russia (Understanding civil war, рр. 87–118). World Bank; JSTOR. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep02484.8</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit5"><label>5</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Becker G. S. (1968) Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach. Journal of Political Economy, 76(2), рр. 169–217. doi: 10.1086/259394</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Becker G. S. (1968) Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach. Journal of Political Economy, 76(2), рр. 169–217. doi: 10.1086/259394</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit6"><label>6</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Bun M. J. G., Kelaher R., Sarafidis V., Weatherburn D. (2020) Crime, deterrence and punishment revisited. Empirical Economics, 59(5), рр. 2303–2333. doi: 10.1007/s00181-019-01758-6</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Bun M. J. G., Kelaher R., Sarafidis V., Weatherburn D. (2020) Crime, deterrence and punishment revisited. Empirical Economics, 59(5), рр. 2303–2333. doi: 10.1007/s00181-019-01758-6</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit7"><label>7</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chalfin A., McCrary J. (2017) Criminal Deterrence : A Review of the Literature. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(1), рр. 5–48. doi: 10.1257/jel.20141147</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chalfin A., McCrary J. (2017) Criminal Deterrence : A Review of the Literature. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(1), рр. 5–48. doi: 10.1257/jel.20141147</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit8"><label>8</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chervyakov V. V., Shkolnikov V. M., Pridemore W. A., McKee M. (2002) The changing nature of murder in Russia. Social Science &amp; Medicine, 55(10), рр. 1713–1724. doi: 10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00299-4</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chervyakov V. V., Shkolnikov V. M., Pridemore W. A., McKee M. (2002) The changing nature of murder in Russia. Social Science &amp; Medicine, 55(10), рр. 1713–1724. doi: 10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00299-4</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit9"><label>9</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Cooney M., Burt C. H. (2008) Less Crime, More Punishment. American Journal of Sociology, 114(2), рр. 491–527. doi: 10.1086/592425</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Cooney M., Burt C. H. (2008) Less Crime, More Punishment. American Journal of Sociology, 114(2), рр. 491–527. doi: 10.1086/592425</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit10"><label>10</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Drago F., Galbiati R., Vertova P. (2009) The Deterrent Effects of Prison: Evidence from a Natural Experiment. Journal of Political Economy, 117(2), рр. 257–280. doi: 10.1086/599286</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Drago F., Galbiati R., Vertova P. (2009) The Deterrent Effects of Prison: Evidence from a Natural Experiment. Journal of Political Economy, 117(2), рр. 257–280. doi: 10.1086/599286</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit11"><label>11</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ehrlich I. (1973) Participation in Illegitimate Activities: A Theoretical and Empirical Investigation. Journal of Political Economy, 81(3), рр. 521–565. doi: 10.1086/260058</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ehrlich I. (1973) Participation in Illegitimate Activities: A Theoretical and Empirical Investigation. Journal of Political Economy, 81(3), рр. 521–565. doi: 10.1086/260058</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit12"><label>12</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Engelen P.-J., Lander M. W., Van Essen M. (2016) What determines crime rates? An empirical test of integrated economic and sociological theories of criminal behavior. The Social Science Journal, 53(2), рр. 247–262. doi: 10.1016/j.soscij.2015.09.001</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Engelen P.-J., Lander M. W., Van Essen M. (2016) What determines crime rates? An empirical test of integrated economic and sociological theories of criminal behavior. The Social Science Journal, 53(2), рр. 247–262. doi: 10.1016/j.soscij.2015.09.001</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit13"><label>13</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Fragkouli K., Boumba V., Vougiouklakis T. (2016) Survey of medico-legal investigation of homicide in the region of Epirus (Northwest Greece). Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 37, рр. 39–44. doi: 10.1016/j.jflm.2015.10.003</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Fragkouli K., Boumba V., Vougiouklakis T. (2016) Survey of medico-legal investigation of homicide in the region of Epirus (Northwest Greece). Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 37, рр. 39–44. doi: 10.1016/j.jflm.2015.10.003</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit14"><label>14</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Goodwin G. P., Gromet D. M. (2014) Punishment. WIREs Cognitive Science, 5(5), рр. 561–572. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1301</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Goodwin G. P., Gromet D. M. (2014) Punishment. WIREs Cognitive Science, 5(5), рр. 561–572. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1301</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit15"><label>15</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Grogger J. (1991) Certainty vs. Severity of punishment. Economic Inquiry, 29(2), рр. 297–309. doi: 10.1111/j.1465-7295.1991.tb01272.x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Grogger J. (1991) Certainty vs. Severity of punishment. Economic Inquiry, 29(2), рр. 297–309. doi: 10.1111/j.1465-7295.1991.tb01272.x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit16"><label>16</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hayward K. (2007) Situational Crime Prevention and its Discontents: Rational Choice Theory versus the “Culture of Now”. Social Policy &amp; Administration, 41(3), рр. 232–250. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9515.2007.00550.x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hayward K. (2007) Situational Crime Prevention and its Discontents: Rational Choice Theory versus the “Culture of Now”. Social Policy &amp; Administration, 41(3), рр. 232–250. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9515.2007.00550.x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit17"><label>17</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hendley K. (2009) “Telephone Law” and the “Rule of Law”: The Russian Case. Hague Journal on the Rule of Law, 1(02), рр. 241. doi: 10.1017/S1876404509002413</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hendley K. (2009) “Telephone Law” and the “Rule of Law”: The Russian Case. Hague Journal on the Rule of Law, 1(02), рр. 241. doi: 10.1017/S1876404509002413</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit18"><label>18</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Heyes A., Saberian S. (2019) Temperature and Decisions: Evidence from 207,000 Court Cases. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 11(2), рр. 238–265. doi: 10.1257/app.20170223</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Heyes A., Saberian S. (2019) Temperature and Decisions: Evidence from 207,000 Court Cases. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 11(2), рр. 238–265. doi: 10.1257/app.20170223</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit19"><label>19</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hou Y., Wang P. (2020) Unpolluted decisions: Air quality and judicial outcomes in China. Economics Letters, 194, рр. 109‒369. doi: 10.1016/j.econlet.2020.109369</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hou Y., Wang P. (2020) Unpolluted decisions: Air quality and judicial outcomes in China. Economics Letters, 194, рр. 109‒369. doi: 10.1016/j.econlet.2020.109369</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit20"><label>20</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lochner L. (2007) Individual Perceptions of the Criminal Justice System. The American Economic Review, 97(1), рр. 444–460. doi: 10.1257/000282807780323505</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lochner L. (2007) Individual Perceptions of the Criminal Justice System. The American Economic Review, 97(1), рр. 444–460. doi: 10.1257/000282807780323505</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit21"><label>21</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Loeffler C. E., Nagin D. S. (2022) The Impact of Incarceration on Recidivism. Annual Review of Criminology, 5(1), рр. 133–152. doi: 10.1146/annurev-criminol-030920-112506</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Loeffler C. E., Nagin D. S. (2022) The Impact of Incarceration on Recidivism. Annual Review of Criminology, 5(1), рр. 133–152. doi: 10.1146/annurev-criminol-030920-112506</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit22"><label>22</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lysova, A. V., Shchitov N. G., Pridemore W. A. (2012) Homicide in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. В: M. C. A. Liem &amp; W. A. Pridemore (Ред.), Handbook of European Homicide Research (рр. 451–469). Springer New York. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-0466-8_29</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lysova, A. V., Shchitov N. G., Pridemore W. A. (2012) Homicide in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. В: M. C. A. Liem &amp; W. A. Pridemore (Ред.), Handbook of European Homicide Research (рр. 451–469). Springer New York. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-0466-8_29</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit23"><label>23</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Meade B., Steiner B., Makarios M., Travis L. (2013) Estimating a Dose–Response Relationship Between Time Served in Prison and Recidivism. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 50(4), рр. 525–550. doi: 10.1177/0022427812458928</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Meade B., Steiner B., Makarios M., Travis L. (2013) Estimating a Dose–Response Relationship Between Time Served in Prison and Recidivism. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 50(4), рр. 525–550. doi: 10.1177/0022427812458928</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit24"><label>24</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Mrug S., Madan A., Cook E. W., Wright R. A. (2015) Emotional and Physiological Desensitization to Real-Life and Movie Violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(5), рр. 1092–1108. doi: 10.1007/s10964-014-0202-z</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Mrug S., Madan A., Cook E. W., Wright R. A. (2015) Emotional and Physiological Desensitization to Real-Life and Movie Violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(5), рр. 1092–1108. doi: 10.1007/s10964-014-0202-z</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit25"><label>25</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Nagin D. S., Cullen F. T., Jonson C. L. (2009) Imprisonment and Reoffending. Crime and Justice, 38(1), рр. 115–200. doi: 10.1086/599202</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Nagin D. S., Cullen F. T., Jonson C. L. (2009) Imprisonment and Reoffending. Crime and Justice, 38(1), рр. 115–200. doi: 10.1086/599202</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit26"><label>26</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Peer E., Gamliel E. (2013) Heuristics and biases in judicial decisions. Court Review, 49, р. 114.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Peer E., Gamliel E. (2013) Heuristics and biases in judicial decisions. Court Review, 49, р. 114.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit27"><label>27</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Prudkov P. N., Rodina O. N. (2019) Cold temperatures, stress, and violence. Heliyon, 5(5), рр. e01619. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01619</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Prudkov P. N., Rodina O. N. (2019) Cold temperatures, stress, and violence. Heliyon, 5(5), рр. e01619. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01619</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit28"><label>28</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Rhodes W., Gaes G. G., Kling R., Cutler C. (2018) Relationship Between Prison Length of Stay and Recidivism: A Study Using Regression Discontinuity and Instrumental Variables With Multiple Break Points. Criminology &amp; Public Policy, 17(3), рр. 731–769. doi: 10.1111/1745-9133.12382</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Rhodes W., Gaes G. G., Kling R., Cutler C. (2018) Relationship Between Prison Length of Stay and Recidivism: A Study Using Regression Discontinuity and Instrumental Variables With Multiple Break Points. Criminology &amp; Public Policy, 17(3), рр. 731–769. doi: 10.1111/1745-9133.12382</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit29"><label>29</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tittle C. R. (1969) Crime Rates and Legal Sanctions. Social Problems, 16(4), рр. 409–423. doi: 10.2307/799950</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tittle C. R. (1969) Crime Rates and Legal Sanctions. Social Problems, 16(4), рр. 409–423. doi: 10.2307/799950</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit30"><label>30</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wermink H., Nieuwbeerta P., Ramakers A. A. T., De Keijser J. W., Dirkzwager A. J. E. (2018) Short-Term Effects of Imprisonment Length on Recidivism in the Netherlands. Crime &amp; Delinquency, 64(8), рр. 1057–1093. doi: 10.1177/0011128716687290</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wermink H., Nieuwbeerta P., Ramakers A. A. T., De Keijser J. W., Dirkzwager A. J. E. (2018) Short-Term Effects of Imprisonment Length on Recidivism in the Netherlands. Crime &amp; Delinquency, 64(8), рр. 1057–1093. doi: 10.1177/0011128716687290</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit31"><label>31</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wheeler S., Mann K., Sarat A. (1980) Sentencing the White-Collar Offender. American Criminal Law Review, 17.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wheeler S., Mann K., Sarat A. (1980) Sentencing the White-Collar Offender. American Criminal Law Review, 17.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit32"><label>32</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wilson J. Q., Herrnstein R. J. (1986) Crime and human nature: The definitive study of the causes of crime (1. Touchstone ed). Simon und Schuster.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wilson J. Q., Herrnstein R. J. (1986) Crime and human nature: The definitive study of the causes of crime (1. Touchstone ed). Simon und Schuster.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit33"><label>33</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Zhuchkova S., Kazun A. (2023) Exploring Gender Bias in Homicide Sentencing: An Empirical Study of Russian Court Decisions Using Text Mining. Homicide Studies, рр. 10887679231217159. doi: 10.1177/10887679231217159</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Zhuchkova S., Kazun A. (2023) Exploring Gender Bias in Homicide Sentencing: An Empirical Study of Russian Court Decisions Using Text Mining. Homicide Studies, рр. 10887679231217159. doi: 10.1177/10887679231217159</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref></ref-list><fn-group><fn fn-type="conflict"><p>The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.</p></fn></fn-group></back></article>
