<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.3 20210610//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1-3.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="ru"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">socofpower</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="ru">Социология власти</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Sociology of Power</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">2074-0492</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2413-144X</issn><publisher><publisher-name>The Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id custom-type="edn" pub-id-type="custom">IBNXWP</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">socofpower-282</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>СТАТЬИ. ТЕОРИЯ И ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>ARTICLES. THEORY &amp; INVESTIGATIONS</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>К прогнозированию вероятности невооруженной революционной дестабилизации методами машинного обучения</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Towards Forecastingting the Probability of Unarmed Revolutionary Destabilization Using Machine Learning Methods</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3451-3790</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Медведев</surname><given-names>И. А.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Medvedev</surname><given-names>I. A.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Медведев Илья Александрович — магистр социологии, младший научный сотрудник, Центр изучения стабильности и рисков.</p><p>Москва</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Ilya A. Medvedev — Master of Sociology, Junior Research Fellow, Center for Stability and Risk Studies, HSE University.</p><p>Moscow</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">semyonkot@yandex.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3014-2037</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Коротаев</surname><given-names>А. В.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Korotayev</surname><given-names>A. V.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Коротаев Андрей Витальевич — д.и.н., директор, Центр изучения стабильности и рисков, НИУ «ВШЭ»; г.н.с., Институт Африки РАН.</p><p>Москва</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Andrey V. Korotayev — Doctor of Historical Sciences, Director, Center for Stability and Risk Studies, HSE University; Chief Researcher, Institute for African Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences.</p><p>Moscow</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">akorotayev@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-2"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff-1"><aff xml:lang="ru">Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики»<country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en">National Research University Higher School of Economics<country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff-2"><aff xml:lang="ru">Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики»; Институт Африки РАН<country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en">National Research University Higher School of Economics; Institute for African Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences<country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2025</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>27</day><month>07</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><volume>37</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>108</fpage><lpage>141</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Медведев И.А., Коротаев А.В., 2025</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Медведев И.А., Коротаев А.В.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Medvedev I.A., Korotayev A.V.</copyright-holder><license license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://socofpower.ranepa.ru/jour/article/view/282">https://socofpower.ranepa.ru/jour/article/view/282</self-uri><abstract><p>В своей статье авторы предлагают систематический обзор основных способов применения методов машинного обучения, релевантного для политической социологии. Описывается история перехода от использования простых регрессионных моделей к комплексным моделям машинного обучения. Анализируются причины и преимущества такого перехода. Определяются основные способы использования моделей машинного обучения, которыми пользуются в смежных дисциплинах, и приводятся способы их применения к задачам предсказания революционных событий. Рассматривается когорта других исследователей, которые по-своему решали вопрос предсказания политической нестабильности от использования множества регрессионных моделей до применения машинного обучения как классификатора для твитов во время «арабской весны». Приводится расширенное описание основных направлений в области изучения поведения предикторов в моделях машинного обучения. Анализируются кейсы их применения и ограничения, с которыми могут столкнуться исследователи. Авторы приводят описание различных статистических подходов к задаче оценки параметров моделей машинного обучения. На примере анализа моделей, построенных для предсказания вероятности возникновения невооруженных революционных эпизодов, рассматриваются способы ранжирования параметров модели через оценку решающих деревьев и изменения в результирующей силе моделей. Авторы показывают, как коррелированные переменные могут влиять на полученный результат ранжирования, почему переменные могут при разных системах подсчета их важности оказываться в различных частях рейтинга. Также рассматривается способ определения границы, после которой параметры модели можно рассматривать как статистически значимые. Авторами проводится способ генерализованного представления направления связи различных переменных, с учетом их взаимодействия с другими предикторами, и дается интерпретация полученных результатов с использованием векторов Шепли. Из содержательных результатов проведенных тестов особо следует отметить выявление исключительно мощного эффекта революционных волн в революционных событиях XXI века, притом что в XXI веке эффект глобальных революционных волн оказывается сильнее эффекта волн региональных. Проведенные тесты заставляют предполагать, что особо сильными факторами, значимо повышающими в XXI веке вероятность начала невооруженных революционных выступлений (кроме эффекта революционных волн), являются следующие: высокий уровень политической коррупции, эффект инерции (невооруженные революционные или мощные протестные события в недавнем прошлом), аномалии экономического роста, высокие объемы помощи со стороны США (эффект «железной клетки либерализма» по Д. Риттеру), отсутствие нефтяной ренты, высокая численность населения, высокая продовольственная инфляция, средний уровень экономического развития, продолжительное пребывание первого лица у власти и промежуточный тип политического режима.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="en"><p>The authors provide a broad overview of the main applications for machine learning methods in political sociology. They describe history of the transition from simple regression models to complex machine learning models. The reasons for and benefits of this transition are discussed. The authors identify the main uses of machine learning models in related disciplines and describe how they have been applied to the task of predicting revolutionary episodes. A cohort of other researchers who have tackled the issue of predicting political instability in their own ways, from using multiple regression models to using machine learning as a classifier for tweets during the Arab Spring, is reviewed. An extended description of the main trends in the field of studying predictor behavior in machine learning models is given. Cases of their application and the limitations researchers may face are discussed. The authors describe different statistical approaches to the task of estimating parameters of machine learning models. Using the example of analyzing models built to predict the probability of revolutionary episodes, they discuss ways of ranking model parameters through the estimation of decision trees and changes in the resulting power of models. The authors show how correlated variables can influence the obtained ranking result, why variables can appear in different parts of the ranking under different systems of calculating their importance. The authors also consider the method of determining the boundary after which the model parameters can be considered statistically significant. The authors provide a method of generalized representation of the direction of association of different variables, taking into account their interaction with other predictors, and give an interpretation of the results obtained using Shepley vectors. Among the substantive results of the tests, it is especially worth noting the identification of an exceptionally powerful effect of revolutionary waves in revolutionary events of the 21st century, given that in the 21st century the effect of global revolutionary waves turns out to be stronger than the effect of regional waves. In general, the tests suggest that the following are particularly strong factors that significantly increase the probability of the onset of unarmed revolutionary uprisings in the 21st century (in addition to the effect of revolutionary waves): a high level of political corruption, the effect of inertia (unarmed revolutionary or powerful protest events in the recent past), anomalies in economic growth, high amounts of aid from the United States (the effect of the “iron cage of liberalism” according to Daniel Ritter), the absence of oil rent, high population, high food inflation, middle-income economy, long incumbent duration and an intermediate type of political regime.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>методология</kwd><kwd>политическая социология</kwd><kwd>машинное обучение</kwd><kwd>невооруженные революции</kwd><kwd>политическая нестабильность</kwd><kwd>прогнозирование</kwd><kwd>вычислительные социальные науки</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>methodology</kwd><kwd>political sociology</kwd><kwd>machine learning</kwd><kwd>unarmed revolutions</kwd><kwd>political instability</kwd><kwd>forecasting</kwd><kwd>computational social science</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group xml:lang="ru"><funding-statement>Исследование выполнено в рамках Программы фундаментальных исследований НИУ ВШЭ в 2025 г. при поддержке Российского научного фонда (проект № 23-18-00535).</funding-statement></funding-group><funding-group xml:lang="en"><funding-statement>The study was carried out within the framework of the HSE Fundamental Research Program in 2025 with the support of the Russian Science Foundation (project No. 23-18-00535).</funding-statement></funding-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Алексеев Т. Д. (2016) Анализ последовательностей в социологии: возможности, ограничения и потенциал применения. Социология: методология, методы, математическое моделирование, 43, c. 100–127. EDN: WPVYSV</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Alekseev T. D. (2016). Sequence analysis in sociology: possibilities, limitations and application potential. Sociology: methodology, methods, mathematical modeling, 43, pp. 100–127. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit2"><label>2</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Боровский А. А. (2015) Перспективы применения технологий машинного обучения к обработке больших массивов исторических данных. Кибернетика и программирование, (1), c. 77–114. EDN: TEUTCF. https://doi.org/10.7256/2306-4196.2015.1.13730</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Borovsky A. A. (2015) Prospects for the application of machine learning technologies to the processing of large arrays of historical data. Cybernetics and programming (1), pp. 77–114. https://doi.org/10.7256/2306-4196.2015.1.13730 (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit3"><label>3</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Голдстоун Дж. А., Гринин Л. Е., Коротаев А. В. (2022) Волны революций XXI столетия. Полис. Политические исследования, (4), c. 108–119. EDN: DVNOBB. https://doi.org/10.17976/jpps/2022.04.09</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Goldstone J. A., Grinin L., Korotayev A. (2022) Waves of revolutions in the 21st century. Polis. Political Studies, (4), pp. 108–119. https://doi.org/10.17976/jpps/2022.04.09 (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit4"><label>4</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Жданов А. И., Коротаев А. В. (2024) Инфляционное давление и революционная дестабилизация: оценка воздействия и сравнительный анализ. Социология власти, 36 (2), c. 113–141. EDN: NQBWZK. https://doi.org/10.22394/2074-0492-2024-2-113-141</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Zhdanov A. I., Korotayev A. V. (2024) Inflationary Pressure and Revolutionary Destabilization: Impact Assessment and Comparative Analysis. Sociology of Power, 36 (2), pp. 113–141. https://doi.org/10.22394/2074-0492-2024-2-113-141 (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit5"><label>5</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Коротаев А., Васькин И., Билюга С. (2017) Гипотеза Олсона-Хантингтона о криволинейной зависимости между уровнем экономического развития и социально-политической дестабилизацией: опыт количественного анализа. Социологическое обозрение, 16(1), c. 9–49. EDN: YKUXXJ. https://doi.org/10.17323/1728-192X2017-1-9-49.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A., Vaskin I., Bilyuga S. (2017) Olson-Huntington Hypothesis on a Bell-Shaped Relationship Between the Level of Economic Development and Sociopolitical Destabilization: A Quantitative Analysis. Russian Sociological Review, 16(1), pp. 9–49. https://doi.org/10.17323/1728-192X2017-1-9-49. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit6"><label>6</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Коротаев А. В., Гринин Л. Е., Устюжанин В. В. (2024) База данных по революционным событиям XXI века. М.: НИУ ВШЭ. EDN: AVSRLM</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A., Grinin L., Ustyuzhanin V. (2024) Database of revolutionary events of the 21st century. Moscow: HSE University, 2024.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit7"><label>7</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Коротаев А., Гринин Л., Устюжанин В., Файн Е. (2025) Пятое поколение исследований революции. Систематический обзор. Логос, 35(1), c. 191–316. EDN: RFTSEX. https://doi.org/10.17323/0869-5377-2025-1-193-296</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A., Grinin L., Ustyuzhanin V., Fain E. (2025) The Fifth Generation of Revolution Studies. A Systematic Review. Logos, 35(1), pp. 191–316. https://doi.org/10.17323/0869-5377-2025-1-193-296. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit8"><label>8</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Коротаев А. В., Жданов А. И. (2023a) Количественный анализ политических факторов революционной дестабилизации. Опыт систематического обзора. Полития: Анализ. Хроника. Прогноз (Журнал политической философии и социологии политики), (3), c. 149–171. EDN: NAZUCB. https://doi.org/10.30570/2078-5089-2023-110-3-149-171</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A. V., Zhdanov A. I. (2023a) Quantitative analysis of political factors of revolutionary destabilization. A systematic review. Politeia-Journal of Political Theory, Political Philosophy and Sociology of Politics, 108(1), pp. 64–87. https://doi.org/10.30570/2078-5089-2023-110-3-149-171. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit9"><label>9</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Коротаев А. В., Жданов А. И. (2023б) Количественный анализ экономических факторов революционной дестабилизации: результаты и перспективы. Социология власти, 35(1), c. 118–159. EDN: VKRMWA. https://doi.org/10.22394/2074-0492-2023-1-118-159</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A. V., Zhdanov A. I. (2023b) A Quantitative Analysis of Economic Factors of Revolutionary Destabilization: Results and Prospects. Sociology of Power, 35(1), pp. 118-159. https://doi.org/10.22394/2074-0492-2023-1-118-159. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit10"><label>10</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Коротаев А.В., Исаев Л.М., Васильев А.М. (2015) Количественный анализ революционной волны 2013–2014 гг. Социологические исследования, (8), c. 119–127. EDN: UFZJFZ</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A., Isaev L., Vasilev A. (2015) Quantitative Analysis of 2013-2014 Revolutionary Wave. Sociological Studies, (8), pp. 119–127. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit11"><label>11</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Коротаев А. В., Сойер П. С., Гринин Л. Е., Шишкина А. Р., Романов Д. М. (2020) Социально-экономическое развитие и антиправительственные протесты в свете новых результатов количественного анализа глобальных баз данных. Социологический журнал, 26(4), c. 61–78. EDN: SCFFFV. https://doi.org/10.19181/socjour.2020.26.4.7642</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A., Sawyer P., Grinin L., Romanov D., Shishkina A. (2020) Socioeconomic development and anti-government protests in light of a new quantitative analysis of global databases. Sociological Journal, 26(4), pp. 61–78. https://doi.org/10.19181/socjour.2020.26.4.7642. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit12"><label>12</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Коротаев А. В., Шишкина А. Р., Исаев Л. М. (2016) Арабская весна как триггер глобального фазового перехода. Полис. Политические исследования, (3), c. 108–122. EDN: VWPTBL. https://doi.org/10.17976/jpps/2016.03.09</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A. V., Shishkina A. R., Isaev L. M. (2016) The Arab Spring as a trigger of the global phase transition. Polis. Political Studies, (3), pp. 108–122. https://doi.org/10.17976/jpps/2016.03.09 (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit13"><label>13</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Медведев И. А., Коротаев А. В. (2020) К построению индекса социально-политической дестабилизации в различных мир-системных зонах. Системный мониторинг глобальных и региональных рисков, 11, c. 433–454. EDN: JHHHTO</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Medvedev I. A., Korotayev A. V. (2020) Towards the construction of an index of socio-political destabilization in various world-system zones. Systematic monitoring of global and regional risks, 11, pp. 433–454. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit14"><label>14</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Мусиева Д. М., Устюжанин В. В., Гринин Л. Е., Коротаев А. В. (2023) Субъективное благополучие и революционная дестабилизация. Опыт количественного анализа. Социология власти, 35 (3), c. 57–94. EDN: IYBOUU. https://doi.org/10.22394/2074-0492-2023-3-57-94</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Musieva J. M., Ustyuzhanin V. V., Grinin L. E., Korotayev A. V. (2023) Subjective Wellbeing and Revolutionary Destabilization. A Quantitative Analysis. Sociology of Power, 35 (3), pp. 57–94. https://doi.org/10.22394/2074-0492-2023-3-57-94. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit15"><label>15</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Устюжанин В. В., Гринин Л. Е., Медведев И. А., Коротаев А. В. (2022) Образование и революции (Почему революционные выступления принимают вооруженную или невооруженную форму?). Полития: Анализ. Хроника. Прогноз, (1), c. 50–71. EDN: TIZIXP. https://doi.org/10.30570/2078-5089-2022-104-1-50-71</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ustyuzhanin V., Grinin L., Medvedev I., Korotayev A. (2022) Education and Revolutions. Why do some revolutions take up arms while others do not? PoliteiaJournal of Political Theory, Political Philosophy and Sociology of Politics, 104(1), pp. 50–71. https://doi.org/10.30570/2078-5089-2022-104-1-50-71. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit16"><label>16</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Устюжанин В. В., Жодзишская П. А., Коротаев А. В. (2022) Демографические факторы как предикторы революционных ситуаций. Опыт количественного анализа. Социологический журнал, 28(4), c. 34–59. EDN: VEVEEC. https://doi.org/10.19181/socjour.2022.28.4.9314</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ustyuzhanin V., Zhodzishskaya P., Korotayev A. (2022) Demographic Factors as Predictors of Revolutionary Situations: Experience in Quantitative Analysis. Sociological Journal, 28(4), pp. 34–59. https://doi.org/10.19181/socjour.2022.28.4.9314. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit17"><label>17</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Устюжанин В. В., Коротаев А. В. (2022) Регрессионное моделирование вооруженной и невооруженной революционной дестабилизации в афразийской макрозоне нестабильности. Системный мониторинг глобальных и региональных рисков, 13, c. 192–226. EDN: ADTXLI. https://doi.org/10.30884/978-5-7057-6184-5_07</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ustyuzhanin V. V., Korotayev A. V. (2022) Regression modeling of armed and unarmed revolutionary destabilization in the Afrasian macrozone of instability. Systemic Monitoring of Global and Regional Risks, 13, pp. 211–244. https://doi.org/10.30884/978-5-7057-6184-5_07. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit18"><label>18</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Устюжанин В. В., Костин М. С., Гринин Л. Е., Коротаев А. В. (2023) Коррупция и революционная дестабилизация: опыт количественного анализа. Журнал социологии и социальной антропологии, 26(3), c. 53–99. EDN: YTNMDC. https://doi.org/10.31119/jssa.2023.26.3.3.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ustyuzyhanin V., Kostin M., Grinin L., Korotayev A. (2023) Corruption and revolutionary destabilization: quantitative research experience. The Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology, 26(3), pp. 53–99. https://doi.org/10.31119/jssa.2023.26.3.3. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit19"><label>19</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Устюжанин В. В., Михеева В. А., Сумерников И. А., Коротаев А. В. (2023) Экономические истоки революций: связь между ВВП и рисками революционных выступлений. Полития: Анализ. Хроника. Прогноз (Журнал политической философии и социологии политики), (1), c. 64–87. EDN: VRPOBO. https://doi.org/10.30570/2078-5089-2023-108-1-64-87</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ustyuzhanin V., Mikheeva V., Sumernikov E., Korotayev A. (2023) Economic Origins of Revolutions: the link between GDP and revolutionary risks. PoliteiaJournal ofPolitical Theory, Political Philosophy and Sociology ofPolitics, 108(1), pp. 64–87. https://doi.org/10.30570/2078-5089-2023-108-1-64-87. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit20"><label>20</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Устюжанин В., Степанищева Я., Галлямова А., Гринин Л., Коротаев А. (2023) Образование и риски революционной дестабилизации: опыт количественного анализа. Социологическое обозрение, 22(1), c. 98–128. EDN: WSZVDJ. https://doi.org/10.17323/1728-192X-2023-1-98-128</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ustyuzhanin V., Stepanishcheva Y., Gallyamova A., Grinin L., Korotayev A. (2023). Education and Revolutionary Destabilization Risks: A Quantitative Analysis. Russian Sociological Review, 22(1), pp. 98–128. https://doi.org/10.17323/1728-192X-2023-1-98-128. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit21"><label>21</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Устюжанин В. В., Сумерников И. А., Гринин Л. Е., Коротаев А. В. (2022) Урбанизация и революции: количественный анализ. Социологические исследования, (10), c. 85–95. EDN: WSMVJE. https://doi.org/10.31857/S013216250018478-8</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ustyuzhanin V. V., Sumernikov E. A., Grinin L. E., Korotayev A. V. (2022). Urbanization and Revolutions: a Quantitative Analysis. Sociological Studies, (10), pp. 85–95. https://doi.org/10.31857/S013216250018478-8. (in Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit22"><label>22</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Beissinger M.R. (2017) “Conventional” and “virtual” civil societies in autocratic regimes. Comparative Politics, 49(3), pp. 351–371. http://dx.doi.org/10.5129/001041517820934267</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Beissinger M.R. (2017) “Conventional” and “virtual” civil societies in autocratic regimes. Comparative Politics, 49(3), pp. 351–371. http://dx.doi.org/10.5129/001041517820934267</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit23"><label>23</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Beissinger M. R. (2022) The revolutionary city: Urbanization and the global transformation of rebellion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Beissinger M. R. (2022) The revolutionary city: Urbanization and the global transformation of rebellion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit24"><label>24</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ben Bouallègue Z. et al. (2024) The Rise of Data-Driven Weather Forecasting: A First Statistical Assessment of Machine Learning–Based Weather Forecasts in an Operational-Like Context. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 105(6), pp. 864–883. https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-23-0162.1</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ben Bouallègue Z. et al. (2024) The Rise of Data-Driven Weather Forecasting: A First Statistical Assessment of Machine Learning–Based Weather Forecasts in an Operational-Like Context. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 105(6), pp. 864–883. https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-23-0162.1</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit25"><label>25</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Blair R. A., Sambanis N. (2020) Forecasting civil wars: Theory and structure in an age of “big data” and machine learning. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 64(10), pp. 1885–1915. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002720918923</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Blair R. A., Sambanis N. (2020) Forecasting civil wars: Theory and structure in an age of “big data” and machine learning. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 64(10), pp. 1885–1915. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002720918923</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit26"><label>26</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Braithwaite A., Braithwaite J. M., Kucik J. (2015) The conditioning effect of protest history on the emulation of nonviolent conflict. Journal of Peace Research, 52(6), pp. 697–711. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343315593993.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Braithwaite A., Braithwaite J. M., Kucik J. (2015) The conditioning effect of protest history on the emulation of nonviolent conflict. Journal of Peace Research, 52(6), pp. 697–711. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343315593993.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit27"><label>27</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Braithwaite A., Kucik J., Maves J. (2014) The costs of domestic political unrest. International Studies Quarterly, 58(3), pp. 489–500. https://doi.org/10.1111/isqu.12061.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Braithwaite A., Kucik J., Maves J. (2014) The costs of domestic political unrest. International Studies Quarterly, 58(3), pp. 489–500. https://doi.org/10.1111/isqu.12061.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit28"><label>28</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Brooks R., White P. B. (2023) The military before the march: Civil-military grand bargains and the emergence of nonviolent resistance in autocracies. Journal of Peace Research, 61(6), pp. 1002–1018. https://doi.org/10.1177/00223433231180921</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Brooks R., White P. B. (2023) The military before the march: Civil-military grand bargains and the emergence of nonviolent resistance in autocracies. Journal of Peace Research, 61(6), pp. 1002–1018. https://doi.org/10.1177/00223433231180921</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit29"><label>29</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Brunnschweiler C. N., Lujala P. (2019) Economic backwardness and social tension. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 121(2), pp. 482–516. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjoe.12281</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Brunnschweiler C. N., Lujala P. (2019) Economic backwardness and social tension. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 121(2), pp. 482–516. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjoe.12281</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit30"><label>30</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Butcher C., Svensson I. (2016) Manufacturing dissent: Modernization and the onset of major nonviolent resistance campaigns. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 60(2), pp. 311–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002714541843</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Butcher C., Svensson I. (2016) Manufacturing dissent: Modernization and the onset of major nonviolent resistance campaigns. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 60(2), pp. 311–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002714541843</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit31"><label>31</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Caves R. E. (1976) Economic models of political choice: Canada’s tariff structure. Canadian Journal of Economics, 9(2), pp. 278–300. https://doi.org/10.2307/134522</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Caves R. E. (1976) Economic models of political choice: Canada’s tariff structure. Canadian Journal of Economics, 9(2), pp. 278–300. https://doi.org/10.2307/134522</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit32"><label>32</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Cebul M. D., Grewal S. (2022) Military conscription and nonviolent resistance. Comparative Political Studies, 55(13), pp. 2217–2249. https://doi.org/10.1177/00104140211066209</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Cebul M. D., Grewal S. (2022) Military conscription and nonviolent resistance. Comparative Political Studies, 55(13), pp. 2217–2249. https://doi.org/10.1177/00104140211066209</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit33"><label>33</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chadefaux T. (2023) An automated pattern recognition system for conflict. Journal of Computational Science, 72, pp. 102–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocs.2023.102074</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chadefaux T. (2023) An automated pattern recognition system for conflict. Journal of Computational Science, 72, pp. 102–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocs.2023.102074</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit34"><label>34</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chadefaux T. (2014) Early warning signals for war in the news. Journal of Peace Research, 51(1), pp. 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343313507302</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chadefaux T. (2014) Early warning signals for war in the news. Journal of Peace Research, 51(1), pp. 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343313507302</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit35"><label>35</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chan J. Y. L. et al. (2022) Mitigating the multicollinearity problem and its machine learning approach: a review. Mathematics, 10(8), pp. 1283–1291. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/math10081283</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chan J. Y. L. et al. (2022) Mitigating the multicollinearity problem and its machine learning approach: a review. Mathematics, 10(8), pp. 1283–1291. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/math10081283</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit36"><label>36</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chenoweth E., Ulfelder J. (2017) Can structural conditions explain the onset of nonviolent uprisings? Journal of Conflict Resolution, 61(2), pp. 298–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002715576574</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chenoweth E., Ulfelder J. (2017) Can structural conditions explain the onset of nonviolent uprisings? Journal of Conflict Resolution, 61(2), pp. 298–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002715576574</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit37"><label>37</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Dahl M., Gates S., Gleditsch K., González B. (2021) Accounting for Numbers: Group Characteristics and the Choice of Violent and Nonviolent Tactics. The Economics of Peace and Security Journal, 16(1), pp. 1–25. https://doi.org/10.15355/epsj.16.1.5</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Dahl M., Gates S., Gleditsch K., González B. (2021) Accounting for Numbers: Group Characteristics and the Choice of Violent and Nonviolent Tactics. The Economics of Peace and Security Journal, 16(1), pp. 1–25. https://doi.org/10.15355/epsj.16.1.5</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit38"><label>38</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">De Mol C., Giannone D., Reichlin L. (2008) Forecasting using a large number of predictors: Is Bayesian shrinkage a valid alternative to principal components? Journal of Econometrics, 146(2), pp. 318–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2008.08.011</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">De Mol C., Giannone D., Reichlin L. (2008) Forecasting using a large number of predictors: Is Bayesian shrinkage a valid alternative to principal components? Journal of Econometrics, 146(2), pp. 318–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2008.08.011</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit39"><label>39</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Dorward N., Fox S. (2022) Population pressure, political institutions, and protests: A multilevel analysis of protest events in African cities. Political Geography, 99, pp. 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2022.102762</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Dorward N., Fox S. (2022) Population pressure, political institutions, and protests: A multilevel analysis of protest events in African cities. Political Geography, 99, pp. 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2022.102762</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit40"><label>40</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Edwards P. K. (1978) Time Series Regression Models of Strike Activity: A Reconsideration with American Data. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 16(3), pp. 47–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8543.1978.tb00289.x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Edwards P. K. (1978) Time Series Regression Models of Strike Activity: A Reconsideration with American Data. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 16(3), pp. 47–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8543.1978.tb00289.x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit41"><label>41</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Gleditsch K. S., Metternich N. W., Ruggeri A. (2014) Data and progress in peace and conflict research. Journal of Peace Research, 51(2), pp. 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343313496803</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Gleditsch K. S., Metternich N. W., Ruggeri A. (2014) Data and progress in peace and conflict research. Journal of Peace Research, 51(2), pp. 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343313496803</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit42"><label>42</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Goldsmith B. E., Chalup S. K., Quinlan M. J. (2008) Regime type and international conflict: towards a general model. Journal of Peace Research, 45(6), pp. 743–763. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343308096154</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Goldsmith B. E., Chalup S. K., Quinlan M. J. (2008) Regime type and international conflict: towards a general model. Journal of Peace Research, 45(6), pp. 743–763. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343308096154</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit43"><label>43</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Goldstone J. A. et al. (2010) A global model for forecasting political instability. American journal of political science, 54(1), pp. 190–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00426.x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Goldstone J. A. et al. (2010) A global model for forecasting political instability. American journal of political science, 54(1), pp. 190–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00426.x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit44"><label>44</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Goldstone J. A., Grinin L., Korotayev A. (2022) Introduction. Changing yet Persistent: Revolutions and Revolutionary Events. In: J. A. Goldstone, L. Grinin, A. Korotayev (Eds.), Handbook of Revolutions in the 21st Century: The New Waves of Revolutions, and the Causes and Effects of Disruptive Political Change (pp. 1–34). Cham: Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86468-2_1</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Goldstone J. A., Grinin L., Korotayev A. (2022) Introduction. Changing yet Persistent: Revolutions and Revolutionary Events. In: J. A. Goldstone, L. Grinin, A. Korotayev (Eds.), Handbook of Revolutions in the 21st Century: The New Waves of Revolutions, and the Causes and Effects of Disruptive Political Change (pp. 1–34). Cham: Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86468-2_1</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit45"><label>45</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Grinin L. (2022) On revolutionary waves since the 16th century. In: J. A. Goldstone, L. Grinin, A. Korotayev (Eds.), Handbook of Revolutions in the 21st Century: The New Waves of Revolutions, and the Causes and Effects of Disruptive Political Change (pp. 389–411). Cham: Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86468-2_13</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Grinin L. (2022) On revolutionary waves since the 16th century. In: J. A. Goldstone, L. Grinin, A. Korotayev (Eds.), Handbook of Revolutions in the 21st Century: The New Waves of Revolutions, and the Causes and Effects of Disruptive Political Change (pp. 389–411). Cham: Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86468-2_13</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit46"><label>46</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Grinin L., Grinin A. (2022) Revolutionary Waves and Lines of the 20th Century //In: Goldstone J. A., Grinin L., Korotayev A. (Eds.), Handbook of Revolutions in the 21st Century: The New Waves of Revolutions, and the Causes and Effects of Disruptive Political Change (pp. 315-388). Cham: Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86468-2_12</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Grinin L., Grinin A. (2022) Revolutionary Waves and Lines of the 20th Century //In: Goldstone J. A., Grinin L., Korotayev A. (Eds.), Handbook of Revolutions in the 21st Century: The New Waves of Revolutions, and the Causes and Effects of Disruptive Political Change (pp. 315-388). Cham: Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86468-2_12</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit47"><label>47</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Grinin L., Grinin A. Korotayev A. (2022) 20th century revolutions: characteristics, types, and waves. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 9(1), pp. 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01120-9.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Grinin L., Grinin A. Korotayev A. (2022) 20th century revolutions: characteristics, types, and waves. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 9(1), pp. 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01120-9.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit48"><label>48</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Grinin L., Korotayev A. (2024) Is the Fifth Generation of Revolution Studies Still Coming? Critical Sociology, 50(6), pp. 1039–1067. https://doi.org/10.1177/08969205241245215</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Grinin L., Korotayev A. (2024) Is the Fifth Generation of Revolution Studies Still Coming? Critical Sociology, 50(6), pp. 1039–1067. https://doi.org/10.1177/08969205241245215</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit49"><label>49</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Grinin L., Korotayev A., Tausch A. (2019) Islamism, Arab Spring, and the Future of Democracy. World System and World Values Perspectives. Cham: Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91077-2</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Grinin L., Korotayev A., Tausch A. (2019) Islamism, Arab Spring, and the Future of Democracy. World System and World Values Perspectives. Cham: Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91077-2</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit50"><label>50</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Grömping U. (2015) Variable importance in regression models. Wiley interdisciplinary reviews: Computational statistics, 7(2), pp. 137-152. https://doi.org/10.1002/wics.1346</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Grömping U. (2015) Variable importance in regression models. Wiley interdisciplinary reviews: Computational statistics, 7(2), pp. 137-152. https://doi.org/10.1002/wics.1346</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit51"><label>51</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hamilton R. I., Papadopoulos P. N. (2023) Using SHAP values and machine learning to understand trends in the transient stability limit. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 39(1), pp. 1384–1397. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2023.3248941</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hamilton R. I., Papadopoulos P. N. (2023) Using SHAP values and machine learning to understand trends in the transient stability limit. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 39(1), pp. 1384–1397. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2023.3248941</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit52"><label>52</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Honaker J., King G., Blackwell M. (2011) Amelia II: A program for missing data. Journal of statistical software, 45(7), pp. 1–47. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v045.i07</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Honaker J., King G., Blackwell M. (2011) Amelia II: A program for missing data. Journal of statistical software, 45(7), pp. 1–47. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v045.i07</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit53"><label>53</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Huang H., Boranbay-Akan S., Huang L. (2019). Media, protest diffusion, and authoritarian resilience. Political Science Research and Methods, 7(1), pp. 23–42. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2016.25</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Huang H., Boranbay-Akan S., Huang L. (2019). Media, protest diffusion, and authoritarian resilience. Political Science Research and Methods, 7(1), pp. 23–42. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2016.25</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit54"><label>54</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Issaev L., Korotayev A. (2022) Introduction. New Wave of Revolutions in the MENA region//In: Issaev L., Korotayev A. (Eds.), New wave of revolutions in the MENA region. A comparative perspective (pp. 1–32). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15135-4_1</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Issaev L., Korotayev A. (2022) Introduction. New Wave of Revolutions in the MENA region//In: Issaev L., Korotayev A. (Eds.), New wave of revolutions in the MENA region. A comparative perspective (pp. 1–32). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15135-4_1</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit55"><label>55</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Joseph K., Carley K. M., Filonuk D., Morgan G. P., Pfeffer J. (2014) Arab Spring: from newspaper. Social Network Analysis and Mining, 4(177), pp. 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13278-014-0177-5</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Joseph K., Carley K. M., Filonuk D., Morgan G. P., Pfeffer J. (2014) Arab Spring: from newspaper. Social Network Analysis and Mining, 4(177), pp. 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13278-014-0177-5</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit56"><label>56</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kavada A. (2020) Creating the collective: social media, the Occupy Movement and its constitution as a collective actor. Protesttechnologies and media revolutions (pp. 107-125). Emerald Publishing Limited.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kavada A. (2020) Creating the collective: social media, the Occupy Movement and its constitution as a collective actor. Protesttechnologies and media revolutions (pp. 107-125). Emerald Publishing Limited.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit57"><label>57</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Keele L. J. (2008) Semiparametric regression for the social sciences. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &amp; Sons.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Keele L. J. (2008) Semiparametric regression for the social sciences. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &amp; Sons.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit58"><label>58</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">King G. (1988) Statistical models for political science event counts: Bias in conventional procedures and evidence for the exponential Poisson regression model. American Journal of Political Science, 32(3), pp. 838–863. https://doi.org/10.2307/2111248</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">King G. (1988) Statistical models for political science event counts: Bias in conventional procedures and evidence for the exponential Poisson regression model. American Journal of Political Science, 32(3), pp. 838–863. https://doi.org/10.2307/2111248</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit59"><label>59</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Knutsen C. H. (2014) Income Growth and Revolutions. Social Science Quarterly, 95(4), pp. 920–937. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12081</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Knutsen C. H. (2014) Income Growth and Revolutions. Social Science Quarterly, 95(4), pp. 920–937. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12081</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit60"><label>60</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Korotayev A., Grinin L., Ustyuzhanin V., Fain E. (2025) The Fifth Generation of Revolution Studies. Part I: When, Why and How Did It Emerge. Critical Sociology, 51(2), pp. 257–282. https://doi.org/10.1177/08969205241300596</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A., Grinin L., Ustyuzhanin V., Fain E. (2025) The Fifth Generation of Revolution Studies. Part I: When, Why and How Did It Emerge. Critical Sociology, 51(2), pp. 257–282. https://doi.org/10.1177/08969205241300596</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit61"><label>61</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Korotayev A., Issaev L., Zinkina J. (2015) Center-periphery dissonance as a possible factor of the revolutionary wave of 2013–2014: A cross-national analysis. Cross-Cultural Research, 49(5), pp. 461–488. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397115595374</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A., Issaev L., Zinkina J. (2015) Center-periphery dissonance as a possible factor of the revolutionary wave of 2013–2014: A cross-national analysis. Cross-Cultural Research, 49(5), pp. 461–488. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397115595374</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit62"><label>62</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Korotayev A., Medvedev I., Zinkina J. (2022) Global Systems for Sociopolitical Instability Forecasting and Their Efficiency: A Comparative Analysis. Comparative Sociology, 21(1), pp. 64–104. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691330-bja10050</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A., Medvedev I., Zinkina J. (2022) Global Systems for Sociopolitical Instability Forecasting and Their Efficiency: A Comparative Analysis. Comparative Sociology, 21(1), pp. 64–104. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691330-bja10050</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit63"><label>63</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Korotayev A. V., Sawyer P. S., Romanov D. M. (2021) Socio-economic development and protests: A quantitative reanalysis. Comparative Sociology, 20(2), pp. 195–222. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691330-bja10030</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A. V., Sawyer P. S., Romanov D. M. (2021) Socio-economic development and protests: A quantitative reanalysis. Comparative Sociology, 20(2), pp. 195–222. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691330-bja10030</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit64"><label>64</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Korotayev A., Ustyuzhanin V., Grinin L., Fain E. (2025) The fifth generation of revolution studies. Part II: A systematic review of substantive findings (Revolution Causes, Forms, and Waves). Critical Sociology 51(3), pp. 429–450. https://doi.org/10.1177/08969205241300595</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A., Ustyuzhanin V., Grinin L., Fain E. (2025) The fifth generation of revolution studies. Part II: A systematic review of substantive findings (Revolution Causes, Forms, and Waves). Critical Sociology 51(3), pp. 429–450. https://doi.org/10.1177/08969205241300595</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit65"><label>65</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Korotayev A., Vaskin I., Bilyuga S., Ilyin I. (2018) Economic Development and Sociopolitical Destabilization: A Re-Analysis. Cliodynamics, 9(1), pp. 59–118. https://doi.org/10.21237/c7clio9137314</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A., Vaskin I., Bilyuga S., Ilyin I. (2018) Economic Development and Sociopolitical Destabilization: A Re-Analysis. Cliodynamics, 9(1), pp. 59–118. https://doi.org/10.21237/c7clio9137314</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit66"><label>66</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Korotayev A., Zhdanov A., Grinin L., Ustyuzhanin V. (2025) Revolution and Democracy in the Twenty-First Century. Cross-Cultural Research, 59(2), pp. 180–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/10693971241245862</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Korotayev A., Zhdanov A., GrininL., UstyuzhaninV. (2025) Revolutionand Democracy in the Twenty-First Century. Cross-Cultural Research, 59(2), pp. 180–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/10693971241245862</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit67"><label>67</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kostin M., Korotayev A. (2024) USAID Democracy Promotion as a Possible Predictor of Revolutionary Destabilization. Comparative Sociology, 23(2), pp. 240–278. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691330-bja10102</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kostin M., Korotayev A. (2024) USAID Democracy Promotion as a Possible Predictor of Revolutionary Destabilization. Comparative Sociology, 23(2), pp. 240–278. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691330-bja10102</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit68"><label>68</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lahiri K., Monokroussos G., Zhao Y. (2016) Forecasting consumption: The role of consumer confidence in real time with many predictors. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 31(7), pp. 1254–1275. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.2494</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lahiri K., Monokroussos G., Zhao Y. (2016) Forecasting consumption: The role of consumer confidence in real time with many predictors. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 31(7), pp. 1254–1275. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.2494</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit69"><label>69</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lall R. (2016) How multiple imputation makes a difference. Political Analysis, 24(4), pp. 414–433. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpw020</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lall R. (2016) How multiple imputation makes a difference. Political Analysis, 24(4), pp. 414–433. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpw020</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit70"><label>70</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Levin N., Ali S., Crandall D. (2018) Utilizing remote sensing and big data to quantify conflict intensity: the Arab Spring as a case study. Applied Geography, 94, pp. 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2018.03.001</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Levin N., Ali S., Crandall D. (2018) Utilizing remote sensing and big data to quantify conflict intensity: the Arab Spring as a case study. Applied Geography, 94, pp. 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2018.03.001</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit71"><label>71</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Li F., Yang Y. (2003) A loss function analysis for classification methods in text categorization. Proceedings of the 20th international conference on machine learning (ICML-03), pp. 472–479.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Li F., Yang Y. (2003) A loss function analysis for classification methods in text categorization. Proceedings of the 20th international conference on machine learning (ICML-03), pp. 472–479.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit72"><label>72</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lotan G., Graeff E., Ananny M., Gaffney D., Pearce I. (2011) The Arab Spring| the revolutions were tweeted: Information flows during the 2011 Tunisian and Egyptian revolutions. International journal of communication, 5(5), pp. 1375–1405.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lotan G., Graeff E., Ananny M., Gaffney D., Pearce I. (2011) The Arab Spring| the revolutions were tweeted: Information flows during the 2011 Tunisian and Egyptian revolutions. International journal of communication, 5(5), pp. 1375–1405.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit73"><label>73</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Medvedev I., Ustyuzhanin V., Zinkina J., Korotayev A. (2022) Machine learning for ranking factors of global and regional protest destabilization with a special focus on Afrasian instability macrozone. Comparative Sociology, 21 (6), pp. 604–645. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691330-bja10062</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Medvedev I., Ustyuzhanin V., Zinkina J., Korotayev A. (2022) Machine learning for ranking factors of global and regional protest destabilization with a special focus on Afrasian instability macrozone. Comparative Sociology, 21 (6), pp. 604–645. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691330-bja10062</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit74"><label>74</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Muthukumar V. et al. (2021) Classification vs regression in overparameterized regimes: Does the loss function matter? Journal of Machine Learning Research, 22(222), pp. 1–69.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Muthukumar V. et al. (2021) Classification vs regression in overparameterized regimes: Does the loss function matter? Journal of Machine Learning Research, 22(222), pp. 1–69.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit75"><label>75</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Nicodemus K. K. et al. (2010) The behaviour of random forest permutation-based variable importance measures under predictor correlation. BMC bioinformatics, 11, pp. 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2105-11-110</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Nicodemus K. K. et al. (2010) The behaviour of random forest permutation-based variable importance measures under predictor correlation. BMC bioinformatics, 11, pp. 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2105-11-110</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit76"><label>76</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Nirmalraj S. et al. (2023) Permutation feature importance-based fusion techniques for diabetes prediction. Soft Computing, 2023, pp. 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00500-023-08041-y</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Nirmalraj S. et al. (2023) Permutation feature importance-based fusion techniques for diabetes prediction. Soft Computing, 2023, pp. 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00500-023-08041-y</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit77"><label>77</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Pinckney J., RezaeeDaryakenari B. (2022) When the levee breaks: A forecasting model of violent and nonviolent dissent. International Interactions, 48(5), pp. 997–1026. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2022.2090933</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Pinckney J., RezaeeDaryakenari B. (2022) When the levee breaks: A forecasting model of violent and nonviolent dissent. International Interactions, 48(5), pp. 997–1026. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2022.2090933</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit78"><label>78</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ritter D. P. (2015) The iron cage of liberalism: International politics and unarmed revolutions in the Middle East and North Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ritter D. P. (2015) The iron cage of liberalism: International politics and unarmed revolutions in the Middle East and North Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit79"><label>79</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Rozov N. (2022) Typology and principles of dynamics of revolutionary waves in world history. In: J. A. Goldstone, L. Grinin, A. Korotayev (Eds.), Handbook of Revolutions in the 21st Century: The New Waves of Revolutions, and the Causes and Effects of Disruptive Political Change (pp. 241–264). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86468-2_9</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Rozov N. (2022) Typology and principles of dynamics of revolutionary waves in world history. In: J. A. Goldstone, L. Grinin, A. Korotayev (Eds.), Handbook of Revolutions in the 21st Century: The New Waves of Revolutions, and the Causes and Effects of Disruptive Political Change (pp. 241–264). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86468-2_9</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit80"><label>80</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Sun X. et al. (2012) Using cooperative game theory to optimize the feature selection problem. Neurocomputing, 97, pp. 86–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucom.2012.05.001</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Sun X. et al. (2012) Using cooperative game theory to optimize the feature selection problem. Neurocomputing, 97, pp. 86–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucom.2012.05.001</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit81"><label>81</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tang J., Liu H. (2012) Feature selection with linked data in social media. Proceedings of the 2012 SIAM International Conference on Data Mining. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, pp. 118–128.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tang J., Liu H. (2012) Feature selection with linked data in social media. Proceedings of the 2012 SIAM International Conference on Data Mining. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, pp. 118–128.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit82"><label>82</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Taylor L., Schroeder R., Meyer E. (2014) Emerging practices and perspectives on Big Data analysis in economics: Bigger and better or more of the same? Big Data &amp; Society, 1(2), article 2053951714536877. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951714536877</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Taylor L., Schroeder R., Meyer E. (2014) Emerging practices and perspectives on Big Data analysis in economics: Bigger and better or more of the same? Big Data &amp; Society, 1(2), article 2053951714536877. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951714536877</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit83"><label>83</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tremayne M. (2016) Anatomy of protest in the digital era: A network analysis of Twitter and Occupy Wall Street. Social Networks and Social Movements. London: Routledge, pp. 110–126.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tremayne M. (2016) Anatomy of protest in the digital era: A network analysis of Twitter and Occupy Wall Street. Social Networks and Social Movements. London: Routledge, pp. 110–126.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit84"><label>84</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tumasjan A. et al. (2010) Predicting elections with twitter: What 140 characters reveal about political sentiment. Proceedings of the international AAAI conference on web and social media, 4(1), pp. 178–185. https://doi.org/10.1609/icwsm.v4i1.14009</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tumasjan A. et al. (2010) Predicting elections with twitter: What 140 characters reveal about political sentiment. Proceedings of the international AAAI conference on web and social media, 4(1), pp. 178–185. https://doi.org/10.1609/icwsm.v4i1.14009</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit85"><label>85</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ulfelder J. (2012) Forecasting Political Instability: Results from a Tournament of Methods. Available at SSRN 2156234.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ulfelder J. (2012) Forecasting Political Instability: Results from a Tournament of Methods. Available at SSRN 2156234.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit86"><label>86</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ustyuzhanin V., Korotayev A. (2023) Revolutions and Democracy. Can Democracies Prevent Revolutionary Armed Violence? Comparative Sociology, 22(1), pp. 95–137. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691330-bja10073</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ustyuzhanin V., Korotayev A. (2023) Revolutions and Democracy. Can Democracies Prevent Revolutionary Armed Violence? Comparative Sociology, 22(1), pp. 95–137. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691330-bja10073</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit87"><label>87</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ustyuzhanin V. V., Sawyer P. S., Korotayev A. V. (2023) Students and protests: A quantitative cross-national analysis. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 64(4), pp. 375–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/00207152221136042</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ustyuzhanin V. V., Sawyer P. S., Korotayev A. V. (2023) Students and protests: A quantitative cross-national analysis. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 64(4), pp. 375–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/00207152221136042</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit88"><label>88</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Von Eschenbach W. J. (2021) Transparency and the black box problem: Why we do not trust AI. Philosophy &amp; Technology, 34(4), pp. 1607–1622. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-021-00477-0</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Von Eschenbach W. J. (2021) Transparency and the black box problem: Why we do not trust AI. Philosophy &amp; Technology, 34(4), pp. 1607–1622. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-021-00477-0</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit89"><label>89</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Yun Y. H., Liang F., Deng B. C., Lai G. B., Vicente Gonçalves C. M., Lu H. M., Liang Y. Z. (2015) Informative metabolites identification by variable importance analysis based on random variable combination. Metabolomics, 11, pp. 1539–1551. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11306-015-0803-x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Yun Y. H., Liang F., Deng B. C., Lai G. B., Vicente Gonçalves C. M., Lu H. M., Liang Y. Z. (2015) Informative metabolites identification by variable importance analysis based on random variable combination. Metabolomics, 11, pp. 1539–1551. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11306-015-0803-x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref></ref-list><fn-group><fn fn-type="conflict"><p>The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.</p></fn></fn-group></back></article>
